Vocabulary Learning Through Computer Assisted Language English Language Essay

Vocabulary Learning Through Computer Assisted talking to English Language EssayAbstractThe richness of skill English as an international language requires the science of phraseology as the basic and necessary skill. By the improvement of technology, and estimator in particular, many lookes are done to show the influence of technology on vocabulary fellowship. This literary review is done to show the importance as rise.IntroductionMichael Levy defined Computer-assisted Language Learning ( battle cry) in his book as the search for and study of applications of the computer in language t all(a)(prenominal)ing and examineing (p.1). It is recognizable in the pedantic literature for about the last thirty years. cancel has been make possible by invention and development of the computer. They developed from large mainframe computers to smaller, faster, and easier ones. For all those who sound to create new CALL materials, points of departure range dramatically from top-down ap proaches centered perhaps upon a theory of language or language acquirement, or a curriculum specification, while others might develop CALL materials from the bottom up, perhaps by using the computer to address a particular schoolroom problem. another(prenominal) points of departure might include a learning strategy , a macroskill, computer conferencing, or an exploration of aspects of the technology itself. There are possible issues to considerfor example, the selection of the hardware and software development tools for the project, Hypercard, Authorware, Toolbook, CALIS, C, and Visual Basic, or a mark-up language to enable publishing on the World Wide Web such as Hyper textbook or Virtual Reality Mark-up Languages (HTML and VRML), are just a handful of many options now available. (Michael Levy, Oxford Linguistic Computer-Assisted Language Learning Context and Conceptualization, p.3)an interdisciplinary perspective on CALL shows it to be a relatively new field of study that ha s been subject to the influence of a minute of other discipline. In addition to the fields of computing and language t distributivelying and learning, real and potential influences in the development of CALL included aspects of psychology, artificial intelligence, computational linguistics, instructional design, and human-computer interaction. virtually(prenominal) of these disciplines are relatively new in themselves, having developed signifi basetly since World War II. They each switch their own perspective and frame of reference, they often product and interrelate, and the extent to which any one discipline should influence the development of CALL has not been determined. At various times, CALL workers have called upon each of these fields to sink their own work in some way. (the same, p.7)Development of CALLJing-hua suggested in his paper presented It is commonly known that the development of CALL mainly experiences three phases, namely, airist CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative CALL. Each phrase is marked by distinct language teaching theories. For example, Behaviousristic CALL is based on the dominant behaviorist theories of learning and teaching of that time, which emphasizes the formation of speaking habit, thus, courseware mainly focexercisings on practice and drill of language patterns. subsequently behaviorism lost its dominance, cognitive psychology began to gain popularity. communicative CALL rejects the notion of habit-formation and centralisees to a greater extent on creative language use. So software at that time stressed the importance of communication and creative use of language instead of manipulation of language forms. Under the influence of constructivism, integrative CALL began to gain prominence. Constructivism focuses much on the connection mingled with old familiarity and new knowledge and learners are taken as active participators who can engage in creative thinking rather than follow ready made knowledge. The de velopment of internet provides learners with enormous add of authentic materials and in like manner a platform where they can have a real conversation with peers, teachers or innate speakers. The integration of the four skills becomes possible and learners individual needs are satisfied to some extent. Studies on computer assisted vocabulary learning have stirred upon dissimilar aspects of vocabulary learning, among which a line of inquiry is to examine the effects of electronic or online dictionary use or the effects of look-up behavior or the click behavior on expression retention (p.60,61).What Does Vocabulary Mean?Vocabulary .. is an essential means of interchanging ideas and of acquiringnew experiences Mans growth in ideas has endlessly been accompanied by acorresponding expansion of his vocabulary. (Gray 1939, p.1).When a pupil reads and learns the meaning of familiar haggle by context, there isreason to believe that the knowledge pull up stakes be genuine and import ant. (Thorndike 1934, p.11).The commonest way and perhaps the best way to promote growth of content inwords is to allow the child to reason the meaning from context (Chambers 1904, p.50).Vocabulary Acquisition and L2/FL Reading ComprehensionReading is an active skill that involves the reader, the text, and the interaction between the dickens. Reading in a L2 or FL is a dynamic and interactive process, during which learners make use of a variety of skills and strategies, combined with background knowledge, L1- cogitate knowledge and real-world knowledge to arrive at an understanding of scripted material (Aebersold and Field, 1997 ix).Constantinescu (2007) suggests that some(prenominal) researchers have argued that vocabulary plays a major part in tuition proficiencyAside from knowing how to use the appropriate practice strategies, Grabe (1991, as cited in Butler-Pascoe and Wiburg, 2003 124) argues that fluent L2/FL readers need to know about 2,000 to 7,000 words and sometimes ev en more if they want to reach native-like fluency. Similarly, Groot (2000 62) argues that an adequate understanding of academician texts requires a vocabulary of at least 7,000 words. Generally, L2/FL readers need to recognize approximately 95 per cent of the words in a given text in order to comprehend its meaning and they need to know the different meanings of words according to context, as well as words grammatical properties.What are Language Learning Strategies?Seglar (2001) remarked, Language Learning Strategies could be any set of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner which affect this process (p,26).There are two slipway for the second language vocabulary achievement.S. Prell suggested in his articles wo ways for the second language vocabulary acquisition (p.2)The first method, the experimental method, is CAVOCA.The second method is a more familiar approach to the students, called the bilingual word magnetic dip.Prell remarked, The first method is the bilingual word list presentation. The second is the Computer Assisted Vocabulary Acquisition (CAVOCA) computer programme.The CAVOCA method attempts to replicate the way the first language is acquired, which is through an incremental process that gradually develops with repeated exposure and constant interaction between the various stages (Groot, 2000, p. 64). The program has four sections, which include storing the word in recollection using the word in several sentences to learn the spelling and meaning giving examples for long-term memory and a self-assessment.The second method is a more familiar approach to the students, called the bilingual word list. This method takes less time and produces favorable short-term results (Prell). Prell conducted some experiments and found that both of them wre valuable, yet through some experiments it was proved that they were different from each otherIn the first two experiments, the bilingual word list yielded substantially higher results wi th the immediate tests given than the CAVOCA program. However, in testing the students two to three weeks later, the CAVOCA method produced split up results for the retention of the vocabulary. In the third and fourth experiments, the bilingual word list did not show significant differences in the immediate tests from the first two experiments. However, the CAVOCA method showed higher rates of retention for the tests given two to three weeks afterwards the initial test.Information ProcessingIheanacho (1997) remarked in his research suggests that cognitive theorists assume that any complete theory of human cognition moldiness include an analysis of the plans or strategies people use for thinking, remembering, understanding and producing language (p.18).Iheanacho (1997) remarked in his research The memory system explains the interrelationship among the three main computer memory structures of the brain Sensory register, Short term memory (STM), and Longterm memory (LTM) (p.2).Accor ding to Schwartz and Reisberg (1991), the STM provides a small storagerepository where the teaching is repeated all over and over through a maintenancerehearsal process. When a piece of information is repeated and rehearsed, the prob dexterityof retaining that information can increase. But the STM is trammel in how muchinformation it can hold. The maintenance rehearsal helps to transfer the excessinformation which is not yet needed to some other storage called long-term Memory(LTM). LTM provides a storage place of great size containing information that is notimmediately active so that the information can be retrieved when needed. According toMiller (1989), LTM helps people to recall events, solve problems and recognize patterns.It is the repository in which we carry out all that we know (Schwartz Reisberg 1991).The interrelationship between STM and LTM explains how ocular informationcan enhance retention and recall. According to Posner (1969), visual information canpersist in STM after the stimulus is diminished. Additionally, visual information can beactivated and retrieved from the LTM. The information bear on model can account forthe effectiveness of visuals in learning.Visual researchHeinich, Molenda and Russell (1993) proposed that learning is facilitated when instruction follows a sequence from actual experience to iconic representation, and then to symbolic or abstract representation. Visuals make abstract information more concrete and are suited for analogical reasoning (Levie, 1987).Pictures and prose can be used to help both skilled and unskilled readers to enhance their reading skills ( Holmes, 1987). Holmes study the ability of 116 fifth and sixth grade students to answer inferential questions. Three classs were established. The first group used pictures, the second group used prints, and the third group used a combination of prints and pictures. His purpose was to examine skilled and unskilled readers to see if there would be a significa nt difference in their ability to answer questions in each approach. He found that pictures enabled both skilled and unskilled readers to answer inferential questions. Holmes therefore suggested using pictures to initially improve inferential reading, and then gradually advancing to using print only.Imagery and vocabulary acquisitionFurthermore, a study conducted by Paivio and his associates (1971) revealed thatwhen learners are instructed to use images to commit a list of words to memory, recall isfacilitated dramatically. In the study, subjects were required to learn pairs of words byrehearsing each pair, by qualification up a sentence for each pair of words, and by forming amental image for each pair of words, with the image combining the words. They foundthat subjects who learned through imagery performed better on a recall test.Dual-coding theoryDual-coding theory contends that pictures and words activate independent visual codes (imagens) and communicative codes (logogens). The communicative system is language-like and specializes in linguistic activities associated with words and sentences, whereas, the visual system is thought of as a code for images and other picture-like representations (Rieber, 1994 Rieber, 1992). Rieber further explains that both communicatory and visual subsystems have unique properties. Whereas logogens are stored in the verbal system as discrete elements, resembling words and sentences, imagens are stored as continuous units in the visual system.According to (Paivio, 1986 Rieber, 1992 Rieber, 1994), dual coding theoryassumes that three levels of processing can occur within the verbal and visual systems.These are representational connections, associative structure, and referential connections. Representational connections occur between incoming stimuli and either the verbal or visual system. Whereas verbal stimuli activate verbal memory codes, visual stimuli activate visual memory codes.Rieber (1994) explained that the import ant aspect of referential connections between the verbal and visual systems are not one to one, but can be one to many. For example, seeing a picture of a computer may invoke many verbal responses, such as an Applecomputer, an IBM computer or a Laptop computer. This concept can be applied when using pictures to learn vocabulary.associative structures refer to activation or processing of information within anyof the systems. The processing of information in the verbal system is assumed to be serial or linear whereas, processing of information in the visual system is believed to be parallel or synchronous. The separate coding systems, however, can aid each other so that something coded in both picture and verbal forms can be easily remembered (Rieber, 1994).The probability of recall is increased due to the availability of two mental representations instead of one. If one memory trace is lost, the other is still available (Rieber Kini, 1991).Multimedia CALL and vocabulary acquisition Studies (Reid, 1996 Davis Lyman-Hager, 1997 Zimmerman, 1997) showed theeffectiveness of multimedia CALL on vocabulary learning in particular and languagelearning in general. Based upon this review, multimedia CALL programs that use motionpictures, still pictures, and text can help ESL students to improve their vocabulary skills.But it is not clear if a multimedia program with motion pictures or the one with stillpictures will be more effective for intermediate level ESL students. More empiricalstudies to investigate the effectiveness of multimedia CALL with motion pictures and still pictures on vocabulary acquisition of ESL students can lead to the development of more effective methods for vocabulary acquisition.Motion artistic production and still graphicsMany studies (Rieber Kini 1991 Siribodhi, 1995 Rieber, 1990 Rieber, 1996) have shown that computer graphics are effective for gaining attention. Furthermore, Iheanacho (1997) suggested that computer graphics can encourage stude nts to create mental images that in turn make it easier for them to learn certain types of information. The difference between motion graphics and still graphics is that motion creates the illusion of movement which helps to explain abstract concepts (Bricken, 1991 Rieber, 1994).In 1996, Rieber conducted a study to explore how users interact and learn during a computer-based simulation given graphical and textual forms of feedback. He found that subjects learned more when provided with aerial graphical feedback than with textual feedback. Rieber hypothesized that interactive forms of multimedia, such as computer.simulations will promote different levels of processing depending on the type ofrepresentation used (e.g. text, graphics, motion and sound). In an earlier study, Rieber Kini (1991) contended that in contrast to static graphics, animated graphics can provideusers with additional information through two important visual attributes motion andtrajectory. They also added that an imation can provide information about whether theobject is moving or whether the objects motion changes over time. Still or staticpictures, on the other hand, lack motion and are more abstract than motion pictures. Stillpictures suggest motion whereas motion pictures show life in action, can be used to studyspecific elements, and can bring us close to the point of visual contact (Dale, 1969).EXPERIMENTS ON COMPUTER-ASSISTED VOCABULARY ACQUISITION IN THE ESL CLASSROOMRESEARCH QUESTIONSPelletreau (2006) conducted an experiment Of chief importance in this study was the degree to which students would take returns of computer-assisted opportunities for incidental vocabulary learning while performing online reading tasks. The study necessarily addressed a more fundamental question How would students learn new words in the course of completing computer-based reading tasks? Lastly, and most importantly for this study, how was the learning of non- guide words related to the learning of targ et words? (p.16).In an earlier study (see Juffs et al., April, 2006), students frequently used the online dictionary to look up the meanings of target words. In fact, students accessed 71% of all the definitions available to them on average, and yet, such behavior did not correlate with mastery of words (r = .16, n.s.). The best predictor of word mastery (as defined by 2 correctly answered post-reading vocabulary questions) was number of texts read (r = .86, p .0001). In other words, students reading more texts mastered more words, though the time spent clicking on hints had almost no effect on word mastery (Juffs et al., April, 2006). If students were not benefiting from looking up target words, it may have been because they were not actually making use of target-word definitions. But what were they doing while reading? They were either unable or unwilling to learn target-word definitions. It became apparent that students were not gaining a substantial learning advantage by using the online dictionary. In other words, students were not achieving a desired learning outcome. They resisted their language-learning task and instead participated in a counter-task (Lantolf Thorne, 2006, p. 238)In this context, a finality was made to allow students to look up any word in the online dictionary. Perhaps students had been focusing their attention on non-target words, or maybe they had other favored (and unknown) methods of using the program. It was clear that students were likely not using the REAP program the way they had been expected to, and it was also apparent that the instruments to gather data about students behavior in the LMC were lacking. As a result, REAP was modified to allow students to look up the meaning of any word, and the number of clicks of both target and non-target words was recorded.Because quantitative data alone would provide an incomplete picture of student vocabulary-learning behavior, qualitative data collection instruments were introduced . Students could be valuable sources of information about their own vocabulary-learning techniques. The acquisition of target vocabulary was thought to depend on student comprehension of non-target words. It was hypothesized that students would use information about non-target words to assist them in their target-vocabulary tasks. It may have been the case that knowledge of non-target words contact target words would aid students in making lexical and semantic connections that facilitated target-word acquisition. In line with such reasoning, a strong positive correlation between non-target and target-vocabulary acquisition was posited, at least up to a particular critical threshold. For those students who knew the meanings of very some of the words surrounding target words, it was reasoned, target-word acquisition would be minimal. In such a scenario, such students would have too many gaps in their word knowledge and too few resources to be able to acquire a considerable number of target words.In effect, students learning more non-target words were predicted to learn more target words, though only up to a point. Student accuracy on measures of target vocabulary knowledge should have correlated strongly with non-target vocabulary acquisition up to some critical point.After a certain threshold, the acquisition of additional non-target words might have led to a decrease in the number of target words acquired. Such a threshold may have depended in part on the general language proficiency of the student (measured in this case by the MTELP score). The finite nature of the students language-learning resources, including processing power, attention and memory, may also have been important.It was thought that students spending much of their time learning as many non-target words as they possibly could would likely perform as poorly with respect to target-word acquisition as those who paid little or no attention to non-target words. In such cases, it was plausible tha t temporal and cognitive constraints (Sweller, 1988 1994) would lead to students acquiring relatively fewer target words.In effect, the distribution of target words acquired versus non-target words acquired should have been more or less nonlinear. That is, target-word learning should have reached some maximum value for a moderate value of non-target word learning. Additionally, the amount of non-target word acquisition occurring in the study should have been much less, on average, than that of target-word acquisition. While there may have been some exceptions, the definite instructions to focus on target words coupled with the way the words appeared should have led to relatively greater student attention to target words. It should also be pointed out that students answered cloze questions testing their knowledge of target words (for which they standard feedback) after each reading, while they answered no such questions and received no feedback pertaining to non-target words. grea t attention and in general, more cognitive resources devoted to target words should have translated to differential target and non-target vocabulary learning. In terms of predicting how many target and non-target words students learned, general language proficiency should have provided some indication of such information.Pelletreau (2006) concluded in this experimenr, Non-target word lookups did not correlate with target word acquisition. Students did not appear to learn target words faster or better by attending to non-target words. As a result, the relationship between the explicit and incidental learning students engaged in remains unclear. The relative effectiveness of each, as well as the optimal balance of explicit and incidental learning in such a context, is an open question.Benefits of CALL for Vocabulary Acquisition and Reading ComprehensionAccording to Constantinescu (2007) Multimedia refers to computer-based systems that use various types of content, such as text, audio, video, graphics, animation, and interactivity.Constantinescu (2007) mentioned in his article Most research on vocabulary acquisition and CALL has focused on the effects of multimedia glosses, and the same is true for reading comprehension, since vocabulary and reading are closely and reciprocally related. This reciprocal relationship also accounts for the fact that many research studies on vocabulary development and CALL also examine reading comprehension, and vice versa.Multimedia Glosses and Vocabulary DevelopmentOne of the first to examine the effects of multimedia glosses for vocabulary development were Lyman-Hager and Davis (1996), who merged a computer program into the French foreign language curriculum and discussed vocabulary acquisition and students glossing choices for 262 intermediate level students studying French. ii conditions were used in this study computerized reading and non-computerized reading using an excerpt of Oyonos Une Vie de Boy. Both groups had access t o glosses the computer group had access to multimedia annotations, whereas the control group could cite printed text with the same glosses. As to whether or not computer treatment offered significant benefits to FL students, the results of the written recall protocol indicated that the experimental group who used the computer program to read the text significantly outperformed the control group who used the glossed reading in the print form.Using Multimedia for Vocabulary-buildingConstantinescu (2007) mentioned in his article However, multimedia is not used only for glossing texts. Multimedia is a central component of good computer-assisted skill-building software. Thus, Chanier and Selva (1998) stressed the benefits of multimedia support for learning L2/FL vocabulary and presented ALEXIA, a lexical learning environment for French as a L2/FL, which includes a corpus of texts, a general and a personal dictionary, and a lexical activities unit. After reviewing various viewpoints abou t the effectiveness of multimedia for vocabulary learning, they propose useful criteria for evaluating the quality of a visual representation in a lexical environment. Groot (2000) presented another multimedia-enhanced computer-assisted word acquisition program, called CAVOCA, whose aim was to speed up the vocabulary acquisition process. CAVOCA is an interactive program that takes learners through different stages of vocabulary development deduction, consolidation, and long-term retention.Benefits of Multimedia-enhanced DictionariesOther research that focused on vocabulary development with technology argued for the increased effectiveness of multimedia-enhanced electronic dictionaries designed specifically for English language learners, and which have several built-in aids that their book counterparts cannot provide (e.g. the Longman Interactive English Dictionary, the Oxford Picture Dictionary Interactive, etc.) (Butler-Pascoe and Wiburg, 2003 126-12)Benefits of Multimedia for Read ing ComprehensionThe positive effect that multimedia has on reading comprehension comes, according to Busch (2003 278), from the great advantage that online readers have over traditional printed readers the possibility to enhance computerized texts with glosses in multimedia format.The effects of multimedia glossing received increased attention as researchers considered the possibility that computer-aided reading could create more proficient readers by offering a choice of various types of glosses to develop better vocabularies, greater background knowledge surrounding the text, and more effective reading strategies (Lyman-Hager and Davis, 1996 775).Constantinescu (2007) remarked some principles for instructors to increase the efficiency of the introduced strategiesFirst Principle Instructors Should Pay More maintenance to the Existence of Various Teaching ToolsFor vocabulary acquisition, instructors could make great use of technology by using multimedia glossed texts, electronic d ictionaries, corpora and concordance software, as well as various vocabulary-building software.Second Principle Instructors Should Introduce Multimedia-glossed Texts into Their Vocabulary/Reading ClassesMultimedia glossing triggers better results when compared to print glosses. Moreover, full glossing fronts to be the best facilitator of vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension, as opposed to little or non-glossed texts. In addition, best results in retention are triggered by picture + text annotations, whereas pronunciation, video, and audio glosses seem to correlate negatively with reading comprehension.Third Principle Instructors Should Be Acquainted with the Criteria for Software and Courseware Evaluation (e.g. goals, presentation, appropriateness, outcomes), As Well As Take Into Consideration Two Very Important Factors Time and EffortTeachers must be aware that there are many different types of software or online materials available for ESL / EFL, however, not all of t hem are valuable for classroom instruction. Some materials focus on specific skills, while others focus on a wide range of skills and strategies. Moreover, instructors should also ensure that the materials used in class are motivating for students and are at an optimum, i+1 difficulty level, so that progress can be attained. Teachers should also pay attention to students level of familiarity with computers and keep in mind whether the chosen software will trigger the desired outcomes.Fourth Principle Instructors Should forestall Up with Current Methodology and Make Best Use of Visuals and MultimediaGood CALL programs should make best use of visual elements and multimedia glossing, as well as generate students participation. The programs should be interactive, allowing the students to make choices. Also, they should consist of a wide range of different types of exercises in which students not only choose the regenerate answers but also type in answers.SummaryL2 comprehention depend s mostly on acquiring vocabulary at least 7,000 words as was mentioned by Groot (2000 62). repayable to the importance of vocabulary acquisition some ways were discussed, and through some experiments by Prell it becomes clear taht the CAVOCA method produced better results for the retention of the vocabulary (p,3). So, in continuation, my research focused on the influence of different models of Call strategies on accelerating vocabulary learning and how the instructors should use them in the best way to increase their efficiencies.ConclusionAmong different forms of computerized ways of vocabulary learning, some ways were mentioned. While being different from each other, it is proved that some of them are more efficient that others. All in all, CALL can be a useful instrument for both teachers and students in regard to the priority it has to the difficult traditional ways.